Multispecies entanglement and rural transformation : fungi and pigs in a Tibetan village

Abstract

Rural transformation in China offers a lens through which broader changes in contemporary China can be observed. Over the past four decades, rural China has undergone rapid transformation driven by marketisation, urbanization and the government's rural policies. Rural areas have responded differently to societal processes based on the diversity of their local conditions. Research on Tibetan transformation has primarily focused on the impacts of modernization, marketization, and state intervention, particularly regarding Tibetan marginalization and shifts in livelihoods and lifestyles. In peripheral villages situated between Tibetan and Han regions, the use of wild resources has supported local livelihoods, potentially highlighting the significant role of more-than-human entities in rural transformation. This study examines rural transformation through the lens of multispecies entanglement in a Tibetan village in Sichuan, China, over the past decade. It is based on immersive participant observation, in-depth interviews and long-term fieldwork. Specifically, this research investigates four species—caterpillar fungus, pigs, mushrooms, and wild boars—shape the villagers' livelihoods, mobility patterns and social relations. Caterpillar fungus, as the primary source of cash income for villagers, has continually reshaped social relations—transforming competitive dynamics into collaborative labor, as harvesting land is increasingly allocated on an individualized basis. Intertwined with processes of marketisation, it has contributed to wealth accumulation, thereby sustaining local livelihoods, enabling rural-to-urban migration, and influencing the desires of younger generations. Moreover, the new breed of pigs, which has replaced the local Tibetan pigs, has loosened the relationship between humans and the land, stimulating population mobility and freeing both time and labor for urbanization. Additionally, the commercialization of mushrooms, intertwined with ecological policies and environmental changes, has reinforced the physical boundaries of the village forest while expanding villagers' mushroom-gathering territories beyond the village. This expansion has fostered regional mobility and further integrated villagers into the market economy. Wild boars, which have thrived due to wildlife protection and environmental policies, have destroyed crops and caused significant hardship for villagers. This has led many to abandon their land, and undermined trust in the local government. These nonhuman species have made villagers' livelihoods more dependent on urban needs and have integrated rural communities into urban life. Through rich ethnography, this study demonstrates the pivotal role of more-than-human actors in the transformation of the Tibetan village. It highlights how nonhuman entities are entangled with structural forces, collectively shaping livelihood strategies, land use patterns, social relations, migration, state intervention, and environmental conflicts throughout the process of rural transformation. This study highlights the complexity of rural transformation, involving not only people, state agencies, and market forces, but also the participation of more-than-human entities. It calls for a rethinking of rurality—one that recognizes the indispensable role of nonhuman actors and understands rurality as emerging through their entanglement with political, economic, and social relations.