Daoist verses in six dynasties of China

Abstract

This dissertation investigates verses from early Daoist scriptures and those crafted by the men of letters, often referred to as “literati,” who employ discourses and imagery of transcendence during the Six Dynasties era. It challenges the modern-constructed academic division between "Literature" and "Religion,", proposing that verse in Daoist sacred texts, often out of appreciation of Literature history, exhibit significant literary artistry. Conversely, it argues that the works of literati, typically viewed as secular and rational, frequently incorporate Daoist themes and esoteric knowledge. Above all, it posits that “literature” can be found within “religious” sacred texts, while the “religious” can be discovered in “literature”, thereby transcending the constraints of modern academic disciplines. The study employs a holistic approach inspired by Charles Taylor's characterization of modern and premodern conditions, transcending modern disciplinary boundaries such as “Literature,” “Philosophy,” “Religion” and so on. This framework aligns with the integrated knowledge systems of traditional societies, where religious elements are naturally interwoven with all aspects of life. The dissertation is divided into two main parts. The first part examines various forms of verses in early Daoist scriptures, including tetrasyllabic, pentasyllabic, heptasyllabic, and narrative verse. It provides both aesthetic analysis and explores the religious aspects, such as meanings, exercises, and doctrines embedded in these verses. This section contends that these verses, often overlooked in literary history, demonstrate a high degree of verbal artistry and linguistic skill. This challenges the modern literary standards, which are dominated by the Western-constructed concept of "pure literature" that tends to undervalue texts serving practical purposes. The second part presents case studies of two literati, Xi Kang and Yu Xin, who incorporated Daoist discourses and imagery into their works. It argues that a precise understanding of their verses requires knowledge of Daoist esoteric traditions and the historical context of Daoist development. Xi Kang's works, for instance, reflect influences from Han dynasty fangshi traditions and Chuci period shamanic practices, while Yu Xin's imitation of Buxu hymns reveals an interplay between literati and Daoist traditions, despite potential barriers in light of his initiation into Daoist esoteric knowledge. These findings contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of the textual tradition in Chinese literature and culture, reflecting a broader, interconnected ontology of traditional Chinese society. Such understanding transcends the narrow disciplinary divisions of “religion” and “literature” present in modern scholarship, allowing us to approach the sources encountered and employed by ancient well-educated individuals, whether literati or Daoist adepts. Through this analysis, we gain insight into an intellectual world fundamentally different from our contemporary categorization thought, a world that the traditional Chinese people inhabited.